The Evolution Of English Through Time English Language Essay

The Evolution Of English Through Time English Language Essay In the beginning, life was simple and life forms were non-complex. Communication between these life forms was also simple, spoken communication and languages did not exist. As life evolved, and Homo sapiens began roaming the Earth, the need for spoken communication became necessary and languages were born. Join me in an exploration of how the English language came to be, and how it has evolved over time. . The Roman Empire controlled England for centuries; however, by the early 400s the Irish, Britons, and Anglo Saxons invaded and began settling England for themselves. Though each of these tribes had their own language, their dialects were close enough for them to understand each other. The language that developed from this inter-twining of tribes became known as Anglo-Saxon or Old English. Later, during the 800s, with the arrival of the Vikings, two things happened to this Old English language. The first was that many Old Norse words were added, and the second, was the complex conjugations began to decline as people disagreed about which ones to use. The alphabet of the Old English language did not use the letters k, q, v, x or z, and the pronunciations of some of the letters changed depending upon what letters were near them. Vowels were easy with the short vowels a, e, i, o being pronounced pretty much the same, as they are today, the exception was the vowel u, and its pronunciati on was more like the pronunciation of the word book today. The long vowels were often marked with an accent mark and have a completely different pronunciation from the long vowels sounds we recognize today. Along with short and long vowels, the Old English language included three double vowels, each with short and long versions. In 1066, the French-Normans under the rule of William the Conqueror invaded England bringing political change and their French-Norse language, which they made the official language of the monarchy and elite. However, due to the daily need to communicate with the English peasant class, the common language became English. Prior to the Norman invasion, Latin had only a minor influence on the English language, but afterwards there was an influx of Anglo-Norman words added to the English language. There was a split between original Germanic words used by the common class and the Norman words used by the elite for everyday items. Beef and cow are an example of the split in words used by the elite versus the peasants, as beef was often eaten by the elite, while cows were tended by the peasants. Beef has its roots in Anglo-Norman while cow comes from Germanic roots. Many legal terms are also derived from Anglo-Norman roots because the Normans ran the courts. Sometimes, French words replaced Old English words completely, while other times French and Old English combined creating new words. It is important to understand that Middle English was not the only language spoken during this period in England; Scots, Cornish and Welsh were also spoken and differ from Middle English. This accounts for the significant differences in dialects from each of the above areas versus the dialect spoken in London. Sometime in the 12th century, the French Influence in England began to fade and a number of writers began writing in the vernacular language rather than French, Latin or Greek. The 14th century produced the most notable vernacular writer of the time, Geoffrey Chaucer the author of The Canterbury Tales. Since then, the English language has been absorbing vocabulary from many languages around the world. English steadily adds the creation of new words and new uses for old words by the sub-cultures of the English-speaking world. Until the 16th century, French remained to be the literary language and Latin the scholarly language of Europe. The evolution of Middle English into Early Modern English began during the Renaissance in the 16th century when a renewed interest in education sparked across England and most of Europe. As a result of the growing interest in the writings of antiquity many Latin and Greek words were introduced into the English language. Along with the introduction of new words into the English language a shift of vowels, changes to some consonants and grammar were also part of the evolution of English at this time. As more literary works began to be written, the need for the stabilizing the spelling of words became important. One of the earliest attempts at stabilizing the spelling of words came in 1582 with the book Elementarie, by Richard Mulcaster. Some of the principles he established include the removal of all unnecessary letters, adding letters to words to indicate correct pronunciati on and the use of a final silent e to mark long vowels distinguishing them from short vowels. Mulcaster also established other principles, but these three are the most significant. Many spelling concepts within the English language exist simply because some Norman scribe first spelled an English word using the phonetic principles of his own native language. From the sixteenth through the eighteenth centuries, the spelling conventions for many words in the English language have been determined by referring to their original forms as a guide; resulting in an unusual combination of old and modern practices. Many of the spellings, including the silent letters of words that we use today were established in the first printed books, and have remained that way because it would have been unfeasible to change printed texts after distribution. By the 17th century, it became abundantly clear that assistance was required for writers to gain a clear understanding of the meanings of words and thei r spelling. One of the first books to offer such assistance was A Table Alphabeticall, published in 1604 by Robert Cawdrey. It was intended to only define difficult and unusual words in the English language that were derived from the Hebrew, Greek, Latin, or French languages. This book contained approximately 2500 words with an interpretation of the meaning. The first book to actually call itself a dictionary though, was The English Dictionarie; published in 1623 by Henry Cockeram. This book was a two part work claiming to be able to not only help readers with the understanding of the difficult to understand writings of some authors, but also to attain speedily an elegant perfection of the English tongue in reading, writing and speaking. The first part of Cockerams book contained brief definitions of words that may have been important to the 17th century elite who may have wanted to leave an educated impression on those they spoke with. Many of his words, were ambiguous contrivances cobbled together from bits and pieces of Latin, and were therefore amusingly inventive; however lacked clear understanding. While the second part of his book reversed the process, listing everyday words, following them with his inventive version of meanings meant to show people how to turn simple statements into more impressive complicated ones. Fortunately, this allure to the obscure finally ended. The 18th century once again brought changes to the English language. These evolutionary changes were brought on by two major events; the first was the ascent of the British Empire and the British Industrial Revolution. The ascent of the British Empire introduced the English language to the world; and the new discoveries in the industrial and scientific fields introduced new words into the English language. The classic languages did not support words like oxygen, nuclear, protein or vaccine, therefore Late Modern English relied heavily on Latin and Greek for the creation of these new words. Late Modern English is the form of English that has lasted through to the 21st century, continuing to add new words every few years, as generations of people start using them. A perfect example of 21st century evolution in English today, is the use of SMS language to replace complete words while using the newest technology of cellular phones and computer chat rooms in the internet. SMS English is t he use of acronyms to state either a whole word or a grouping of words to relay a message. It is a form of the English language that was used during the time of the telegraph, and although using it to relay a message within a text message may be faster and easier, it does not follow any standard rules for grammar or spelling or even which acronyms are word specific. Some have claimed that the use of SMS English is wrecking the English language, and from what I have heard and read in my college rhetoric classes, I tend to agree. However, with the addition of at least one SMS word in the English dictionary recently, it appears that the increased use of this dialect is at hand. What evolutionary change could be next after that of SMS? Could the English language evolve from SMS to more technical forms like that of fax machines? Can you imagine walking into a classroom or down the street and listening to people use beeps and slurs to communicate? One thing we do know for sure is that change and evolution is inevitable, and the changes on the horizon will come just as we learn what OMG and LOL are meant to convey.

Definition of Citizen Essay examples -- Definition Essays

Definition of Citizen The context in which words are used may change in everyday conversation, but ultimately the foundation of the definition remains constant. The number one definition generally changes due to advancement in society. Consider the word "citizen." The meaning of the word citizen has changed since 1913, but the definition that is used today was also used back then. There are some commonalities between The Webster Dictionary, published in 1913 and The Oxford English Dictionary, as well as, The American Heritage College Dictionary. Each of the dictionaries all state that a citizen is an inhabitant of a city or a particular place and a person that has voting rights.   In these cases the definition of the word has not changed during the past eighty years. From these definitions, citizen is still used in the same fashion today as it was in the earlier 1900's. Although each of the dictionaries have similar primary definitions, there are differences in the secondary definitions. The most evident difference appears when The Webster Dictionary is compared to the ot...

How teaching about discipleship might affect the life of a Christian today Essay

Each and every Christian has a vocation; it is in baptism when we enter into the Christian family that we begin our obligation to live out our vocation. There are many examples of vocations that we could be called to, for example the religious ministries, the priesthood and religious life. But, then even the most â€Å"normal† of jobs and the most â€Å"simple† and â€Å"ordinary† things we do in our lives can be considered as fulfilling our vocation e.g. being a nurse, teacher, policeman or parent. We should have a positive response to vocation. We should not act like the Rich Young Man and let materialism weigh us down. We should act like the first disciples and give up everything and follow Jesus, but this has implications. Many people may find it difficult to show all the qualities of a disciple, such as giving up all they have, because they may have family responsibilities and it would be negligent to leave them or take things away from them. Also, society has changed and money is needed, if we were to be disciples like the first twelve we would not be able to survive on charity alone. Today’s population is more materialistic and therefore unwilling to part with money or possessions. We should not become obsessed with wealth and materialism. We should be humble like the Woman at the Treasury. Christians who try to live out their vocation should develop the following four areas: service, prayer, faith and worship just like the disciples in Mark’s Gospel. As Christians today we all have the responsibility to look after those in need and serve others just as the first disciples. Some may say that the mission today is somewhat â€Å"watered down†, but the principle remains the same. There are many Christian organisations that work all over the world caring for the sick, feeding the hungry and speaking up against evil and injustice eg. Christian Aid, Concern and Trà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½caire. Just because we don’t work for these organisations we can still fulfill the mission. Those who do carry out the mission to such an extent can face lots of prejudice and hatred. Service is another important part of Christian life today. Jesus showed us this as he was a leader, but also served – the disciples and those who he healed – Jesus brought this service to such an extent that he sacrificed himself. There are people this century that have also taken the mission to this extent eg. Oscar Romero, Mother Theresa and Maximillian Kolbe. Unfortunately there are not many people who have gone to such lengths. As Christians today we have to try our best to: â€Å"Forget self, take up our cross and follow me (Jesus)† (8:34) Prayer and faith are important elements of Christian life today. Prayer allows us to keep in touch with God and it allows us to let him know how we are feeling. Sadly however some people neglect prayer and only pray when they want something or are in great need of help. In Mark’s Gospel we see Jesus praying to his Father a number of times – in the desert and in the garden of Gethsemane. We see the consequences of lack of prayer story of the Epileptic Boy. When the disciples asked Jesus why they could not drive out the demon he answered: â€Å"Only prayer can drive this kind out.† (9:29) This suggests that the disciples did not pray enough or just did not use prayer in this instance. Without faith there would be no belief in Jesus. Christianity is based on faith – we believe and have faith that God exists and we believe this without seeing. We see the importance of faith in the story about the Woman with the Haemorrhage. She had faith that: â€Å"If I just touch his clothes, I will get well.† (5:28) She touched his clothes and he said: â€Å"My daughter, your faith has made you well.† We are human just like the first twelve disciples, we commit sin and make mistakes. We can fail to recognise him in the lives of others. Sometimes when we find life hard we reject Jesus and act like the rocky soil in the parable of the Sower. Yet even when times are difficult we should always turn to Jesus because he is always there for us. We should always have faith and trust in God. We know he will forgive us for our wrong doings as long as we are sorry, just as he did with Peter – Jesus forgave Peter for denying him. We know this because at the time of the resurrection Jesus left Peter in charge of the Church. If we want to live like the first disciples we should not hold grudges, and forgive those who do wrong against us – like Jesus. The message we should take from the commission is that the Good News is for everyone and that no one should be left out. Yet, in our world today there are groups of people who are segregated and marginalised – 2000 years after the time of Jesus. In conclusion, as Christian disciples we are called to have faith, pray, love others, serve others and worship God.

Argumentative Capital Punishme essays

Argumentative Capital Punishme essays A pregnant wife was brutally beaten, raped, and left for dead. The unborn baby did not survive the trauma. The wife recovered after a long coma, at which time she identified her husband as the attacker, not withstanding his claim that he was out getting some fast food for them. The police closed the investigation despite the fact that the circumstances of the attack were similar to the activities of a serial killer who was active in the area. The husband was convicted and received a fifteen-years-to-life sentence for second-degree murder for the death of the unborn child. After serving16 years, as a result of police reviewing unsolved cases, DNA collaboration, and the confession of the actual serial murderer, the husband was exonerated. Everyone involved in the prosecution process (wife, police, prosecutor) sincerely believed they had the guilty party. But, they were wrong! Examples of police officers prematurely closing cases (noted above) or designing identification procedures in such a way as to prejudice decisions of the witnesses. In other cases prosecutors fail to provide defense attorneys with crucial information or resist the implications of scientific evidence gained after trial that could lead to the reversal of a conviction. There are convictions resulting from biased or incompetent forensic science. In the area of defense attorneys, they are under funded, overworked, or lazy. Such attorneys miss facts, do not investigate thoroughly, and often are hampered by limited resources. Last week the 100th death-row inmate found to be wrongfully convicted since capital punishment was restored in 1977 was freed from an Arizona prison. Most wrongfully accused are exonerated, as a result of emerging DNA technology, there was biological evidence that could be used to prove a wrongful conviction. But, what about the tens of thousands of cases where bio logical evidence is not a factor? The same system was active in investigating,...

Free Essays on The Battle Of The Alamo

The Battle of the Alamo Alamo is the Spanish word for â€Å"cottonwood† and was originally named mision San Antonio de Valero and has been a part of Texas history since 1724. During the early 1800’s a Spanish military cavalry referred to the old mission as the Alamo in honor of their hometown Alamo de Parrass, Coahuila. The Alamo served as a home to missionaries and Indians but most of its inhabitants have been soldiers. The Alamo was home for Revolutionaries and Royalists during the ten-year struggle for Mexican independence. The Alamo was even occupied by Spanish, rebel, and Mexican forces until the Texas Revolution. December 1835, Ben Milam and a group of Texan and Tejano volunteers were involved in a nasty skirmish with Mexican troops quartered in the city of San Antonio. Finally after five days of fighting, General Martin Perfecto de Cos and his soldiers were forced to surrender. The volunteers than occupied the Alamo and strengthened its already fortified defenses. All was good until February 23, 1836. After losing San Antonio to the Texans during the Siege of Bexar, Mexican General Santa Anna determined to retake this key location and at the same time impress upon the Texans the futility of further resistance to Mexican rule. The arrival of General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna and his army nearly caught the volunteers by surprise. Nonetheless, the Texans and Tejanos prepared to defend the Alamo together and they did for thirteen long days against Santa Anna’s army. The commander of the Alamo was Colonel William B. Travis. He sent out couriers to communities in Texas pleading for help. On the eighth day of the siege, a small gathering of thirty-two volunteers arrived from Gonzales, bringing the total number to nearly two hundred. These freedom fighters knew that the Alamo was essential to the defense of Texas and they were ready to die rather than surrender to the Mexican army. As legend goes, Colonel Travis drew a l... Free Essays on The Battle Of The Alamo Free Essays on The Battle Of The Alamo The Battle of the Alamo Alamo is the Spanish word for â€Å"cottonwood† and was originally named mision San Antonio de Valero and has been a part of Texas history since 1724. During the early 1800’s a Spanish military cavalry referred to the old mission as the Alamo in honor of their hometown Alamo de Parrass, Coahuila. The Alamo served as a home to missionaries and Indians but most of its inhabitants have been soldiers. The Alamo was home for Revolutionaries and Royalists during the ten-year struggle for Mexican independence. The Alamo was even occupied by Spanish, rebel, and Mexican forces until the Texas Revolution. December 1835, Ben Milam and a group of Texan and Tejano volunteers were involved in a nasty skirmish with Mexican troops quartered in the city of San Antonio. Finally after five days of fighting, General Martin Perfecto de Cos and his soldiers were forced to surrender. The volunteers than occupied the Alamo and strengthened its already fortified defenses. All was good until February 23, 1836. After losing San Antonio to the Texans during the Siege of Bexar, Mexican General Santa Anna determined to retake this key location and at the same time impress upon the Texans the futility of further resistance to Mexican rule. The arrival of General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna and his army nearly caught the volunteers by surprise. Nonetheless, the Texans and Tejanos prepared to defend the Alamo together and they did for thirteen long days against Santa Anna’s army. The commander of the Alamo was Colonel William B. Travis. He sent out couriers to communities in Texas pleading for help. On the eighth day of the siege, a small gathering of thirty-two volunteers arrived from Gonzales, bringing the total number to nearly two hundred. These freedom fighters knew that the Alamo was essential to the defense of Texas and they were ready to die rather than surrender to the Mexican army. As legend goes, Colonel Travis drew a l...

Avoiding Fallacies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Avoiding Fallacies - Essay Example From the reasoning presented by the characters in the book, there are different approaches to the issue of women and publicity. One of the fallacies would be that she would be putting on pants all over her time. Another one would be that Bill Clinton I never wore pants and that would lead us to question what he used to put on. Blair, one of the characters party to the question believes that there is an issue of economic status and women ability that would drive a woman to remain confident even in the face of controversy. Erin Bruno believes that the choice of such a slogan would be based on publicity that is required. The media, according to him reports stories with the audience in mind. When the perceived audience is large, then the chances that the, media will multiply publicity of the aspect in mind is very high. David Bositis presented an issue with the opinion polls not favoring the minorities. Clinton in this case would be described as a minority based on her being a woman. The refore, the fallacies about her slogans were purely meant to publicize her to the

An illustrated critique of the nature of brand design and its value to Essay - 1

An illustrated critique of the nature of brand design and its value to a selected company - Essay Example It also critically evaluates its internal strength, weakness, and brand power due to massive international presence. The key competitors are under analysis and comparison with H&M to evaluate its brand image significant for its international standing and business operations. OVERVIEW H&M (Hennes and Mauritz) group is a renowned retail designer specialising in fashion apparel and accessories for men, women and children wear. It is the second largest international fashion retailer after the Spanish brand Zara (Inditex). It is operated through leased retail stores, franchises and online catalogue stores with operations in Europe, Americas, Middle East and Asia. It has expanded internationally through network of franchise stores as well as catalogue sales. It offers affordable and chic high street fashion from children to teenagers and adults with wide variety of fashion apparel, footwear, accessories and cosmetics. It divulges the concept of fast fashion i.e. offering premium fashion at affordable prices while maintaining satisfactory quality. It has a distinctive global presence across 48 countries with 2,700 retail outlets covering 50 franchises, 48 Monki, 18 Weekday and 35 Collection of Styles (COS) stores. It has a workforce of almost 94,000 employees globally. The significant growth was captured by introduction of cosmetics and accessories in the fashion apparel market. It derives 90% of its revenue from overseas market, where Germany being the biggest at 27%. The online and catalogue sale is only offered in the European region (Datamonitor, 2011). HISTORY The history of the multi-national retailer dates back to Erling Persson in 1947 at Vasteras, who started the brand initially with Hennes dealing with women wear. In 1969, Erling Mauritz bought a menswear retail company, together Hennes and Mauritz AB founded H&M fashion house dealing with both men, and women wear products. It expanded the fashion business from Sweden during the late 1960s to Norway, Denmark , Switzerland, UK, Austria, Luxembourg, Netherlands and Germany. H&M is listed on Stockholm Stock Exchange since 1974. In spite of H&M Scandinavian origin, its expansion into British and European market was a major success in the late 1970s. The online store was inaugurated in 1988 with consolidation of men, women, teens and children under one fashion brand called H&M. It is operated and headquartered in Stockholm. It turned into a multinational retail fashion business by acquiring 40% stakes in Fabric Scandinavian, which deals with brands such as Cheap Monday, Monki and Weekday retail stores. It also inaugurated its first COS concept store in 2011 at Stockholm (Datamonitor, 2011). H&M LOGO The logo signifies the first letters of the founding members of the H&M group, Hennes and Mauritz. The brand logo illustrates a bold red colour with light cursive that depicts softer outlook. The red colour illustrates a vibrant and enthusiastic outlook that comprehends with the company’s creative fashion trends. The font size and colour chosen for the brand depicts the